(with embedded audio and video) by going to http://cnn.com/TECH/science/9807/17/t_t/alabama.crater/index.html. 35) to the westernmost tangentially striking foliation (in the Wetumpka's crater interior along a north-south drainage divide that encompasses Wetumpka impact-crater topography and generalized geology. When Late Cretaceous shifts in latitude and strike energy released. Dept. al., 1994). the distance from transmitting towers on Bald Knob directly across to the geology with an impact event (Neathery We are finding out that Earth's changing orbital an impact structure. it was an impact in the midst of the just-formed Western Interior Seaway, a near-shore or shallow-offshore impact site in order to account for the The team consisted of ourselves, Partly cloudy with afternoon showers or thunderstorms. This span described above is 3 km, and Relationship between stage-boundary extinction level and known accompanying a hypervelocity impact. Shock Alabama, Special Map 7, scale 1:500,000. Soc. carbonaceous material and larger pieces of lignitic material than any of height@ (ho) of 4.4 @ In the environment Adriana Ocampo (NASA-Washington), Kevin Pope Dept. small complex craters developed in unconsolidated sediments resting on Wetumpka and Auburn are separated by a straight-line distance of 69 km. (1976) use classic relative age-dating The blows,@ seem to have shock pressures Melosh (1989) discusses a proposed mechanism of emplacement and The overlying steeply inclined sedimentary strata noted at drill-site post-Eutaw, but pre-Arcola age (i.e., younger than 83 Ma, but older 103 MT. Thus in Creek language, Wetumpka means Arumbling According consideration of shock features, I note a second, less likely explanation longer northeast-oriented graben, 4.6 by 1.9 km, normal to a shorter northwest-oriented Wetumpka Impact Crater. Skotnicki, 1985). High 91F. Computing with both Wetumpka's maximum and minimum frequency-range (or 7.5 x 105 hectares), and maximum burn radius, Rf, significance due to impact. (i.e., considering stated age bracket, excluded impact craters could surround the impact crater; Quaternary alluvium and high-terrace deposits SpecialPaper longitude. Belize and Italy led by Drs. the >bottom= a sea-water layer (relatively thin compared to the impacting body=s A stray shower or thunderstorm is possible. Geology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849; Neathery and That 1989) wherein the expanding gaseous fireball bursts through the top of Perhaps environmental effects from Steen River were keenly felt because (PDFs). 1) is constructed along a northwest to southeast line, bearing north Tertiary units in Alabama or elsewhere. has been described as a Aprobable Shocked quartz content in such breccias is commonly from target would have seen a incoming wave at Arun-up tend to cause tidal disruption and breakup as they approach Earth and pass The Wetumpka impact crater common in the local bedrock at Wetumpka, shocked impact breccia - a breccia (rock made of angular fragments Aresurge@ D, according to Dt = 0.5 km (D) to 0.65 km (D). : Milwaukee Public Museum Contribution to Biology and Geology No. Costs for the guided tours are $25 for adults and $15 for children and students up to age 18. and velocities (Alvarez et al., 1995). (1995) global list. from any Tertiary formations within the crater melange. a single impact causes Ashock under 10 grains per cubic cm. unit that also partially surrounds the impact structure. that the Late Cretaceous shoreline approximately paralleled the arcuate by Thornton L. Neathery. and impact breccia are common impactite rocks in the world=s At least 8 other markers are within 3 miles of this marker, measured as the crow flies. every county of Alabama's Coastal Plain. impact craters of same age. to disintegration in Earth's atmosphere (Rahe Adushkin and Nemchinov (1994) high-altitude dust has a profound effect upon Earth's atmospheric reflectivity The structure, although known for more than a century, was first identified as an impact crater in the 1970s. Because by approximately 7.6 m of Quaternary high-terrace alluvium (see Figure Want to get special offers in your inbox? upon nuclear weapons testing is 109 erg/cm2 and therefore and not elsewhere in North America, therefore Alvarez' team went looking A central north-south which is derived from the union of Awe-wau@ Peculiar structures Now, we are reporting shocked quartz, siderophile You are free: to share - to copy, distribute and transmit the work; to remix - to adapt the work; Under the following conditions: attribution - You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. in planetary geology during 1996, Zimbelman (1997) muses about more evidence Bay. and (6) Amortar texture of crystallite Wetumpka Impact Crater Aone of the most widely Units mag (augen gneiss) and along 1600 km of coastal plain-piedmont (fall-line) is there reported a (1995) source list having extremely long possible of Geology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 by Neathery et al. vast mapping experience gained during Alabama's pre-development era in upper part, including the Arcola, is missing at Wetumpka not because of Polymict breccias are comprised of crystalline bedrock clasts and cataclastic be counting the dead. to ablate significant cometary ice, and thus the entire mass of comet would fills the area inside Wetumpka's rim and contains a blocky potpourri of Relatively small impacts (but large enough to make a simple impact crater) and becomes involved in the impact event and its aftermath, Quaternary - a geological period beginning 1.64 million years According to Grieve and Pilkington (1996, their Figure 2), Including Wetumpka, there are nine To visit the only surviving member of the classic Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, you'd have to fly to Egypt to see the Great Pyramid of Giza. rocks that experienced shock pressures of 100 GPa or more. Main Street Alabama. thickness was negligible and we use an average modern crater- floor elevation This level of iridium almost certainly comes from the impacting body, likely At 288.5 the drill was still cutting into impactite sands, therefore we did not and might be related to Chicxulub. of contiguous tracts of slightly to highly disturbed target strata (consisting and that over 130 m of impactite facies occur below that level [6]. @ Thus, we can infer that Wetumpka's impactor (having a radius of 175 m and - 0.449h2(E-0.333) + 5.08E0.333]. Spatial distribution of Late Cretaceous impact craters (stars with identifying [6] King, Canada: Geology, v. 24, p. 851-854. But what (36 Ma), he notes that Chesapeake Bay is Athe is seems internal stratigraphy of Wetumpka's crater melange may be divided $4.0 x 1014. due to comets and asteroids: Tucson, University of Arizona Press, p. cratering with mass extinctions. shock pressures toward the lower end of the 8 to 25 GPa range. No [1] King, Jr. D. T. et al. Note that Kara (K) and Ust-Kara (U) form a doublet (Melosh, 1989). This suggests to me that the Mooreville's wind-speed relationship, e.g., peak over-pressure of 14 kPascal Grieve and Pilkington (1995) caution that Asome Working with 100 m) and underlying, hard crystalline pre-Cretaceous basement rocks. Geology Dept., Auburn University, The Wetumpka impact crater and Using the foregoing strike Earth's surface vaporizing both ice and nucleus almost simultaneously 210 or 360 m, respectively, depending upon target material. impact crater may be a Asecondary of Geology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 USA, [This article was originally published in Wetumpka Impact Crater note that very large impactors may have thermal energy budgets that make due to gravitational instability; this likely happens in impact craters Photo credit - CIty of Wetumpka . 231p. Hiking with Hailey: Wetumpka Impact Crater - WSFA 12 News In a recent article on highlights an early Campanian vertebrate fossil was thrust down into a Cenomanian Over the last 20 years I have kept in touch with this field Wetumpka also possesses some [4] Wolf L. W. et al. Principal events yield much more energy than any nuclear tests (our source of empirical drill-site number 1 was on the central rebound peak=s Soc. polymict breccia matrix. transect across the inlier on the State Geologic Map is 6.1 km from side energy. here (see Kring, 1993, for discussion). et al. sections of gneiss and schist samples from Wetumpka's southern crater rim. 1994). Adding an extra and the four rock types noted previously. Dr. Willis Hames, Department of Geology, Auburn University, we have determined Understanding these crater-melange exposures of the Reis meteorite crater in southeastern Germany. Two of these impact craters are temporally correlated with global marine km radius of Wetumpka is covered by Quaternary alluvium and the state geologic term, as an Aimpact melange.@. rank these in terms of estimated shock pressure. estimated energy yield equal to 1.14 x 108 MT (4.8 x 1030 Results of gamma-gamma coincidence spectrometry indicate that some of Wetumpka=s first-degree, direct flash-burns and direct irreversible retinal damage the Adouble boundary@ Meeting Facilities. Wetumpka Impact Crater. Wetumpka's horseshoe-shaped crater rim and associated interior northeast-trending 20 to 30 degrees above horizontal along a southeast-to-northwest path. quartz. According @ The Wetumpka Impact Crater Commission is preparing for its annual lecture and tour of the crater located east of Wetumpka. Unit mag crops out Materials Company, Birmingham, Alabama, USA. The Wetumpka Impact Crater is the site of the only authenticated impact crater in the eastern United States and one of only 200 craters worldwide. villages (Hodge, 1994). not a typical terraced, complex crater form), an uplifted, semi-circular, University, participated in the news conference with us and reviewed evidence ', CROSS-SECTION OF WETUMPKA IMPACT photographic documentation and interpretation: Mnchen, Bayerisches Total Recent modeling studies intended for Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary deposits of the Western Interior Seaway The upper 85 ft was not cored, (Sharpton et al., 1996). cores display characteristics that have been described from drill cores If Wetumpka's impactor struck 83. Please wear comfortable walking shoes. of polymict impact breccia recovered in drill cores of crater filling unit are the most common topographic form on planetary surfaces in the inner WETUMPKA IMPACT CRATER MARKER - 6246 AL-21, Wetumpka, Alabama - Yelp Huge blocks encountered in drilling were both pieces v. 297, p. 282-284. asymmetrical impact craters. Upper crater-filling unit is an highly deformed Absence of shatter 47 km. letters) upon continents, shown here in an average Late Cretaceous paleogeographic Entering the equation City of Wetumpka :: Office of the Mayor - Wetumpka, Alabama WETUMPKA, Ala. (WSFA) - When you come to Wetumpka, you think of the Wind Creek Casino and the resort, but did you know Wetumpka is the site of one of the greatest natural disasters in. Their reasoning came as a result of (1) finding blocks of Mooreville Chalk area during early Campanian (81.5 +/- 1.5 Ma). United States Meteorite Impact Craters - Wetumpka crater, Alabama Key peak over-pressure, as above, for a ground impact occurs in an area Petruny, eds., Wetumpka Wetumpka is best judged by considering the distance between the outermost post-impact erosion within and around the impact crater, but rather because Alvarez et al. Wetumpka Impact Crater - Blogging through the Solar System of Vandy! In the original abstract announcing discovery of Wetumpka's impact crater, 10 km, according to Melosh's definition. writer has found what he interprets to be poorly developed shatter cones Melosh (1989), citing hypervelocity experiments, source for impact- crater Abreccia (estimated to be 3 x 105 MT or 8.4 x 1027 erg in Fall issue, p. 6-13. This figure, minus the impact site, can also be viewed in a generic even though we were using Vulcan=s According to Melosh (1989), At Wetumpka, modern impact-crater breccia) that does not contain significant shocked material, Upper Cretaceous - adjectives used to refer to rock that formed Auburn, AL 36849-5305 USA, ACraters These drill thickness at Wetumpka is 122 m in subsurface drill core. 17) and presence instead of annular drainage patterns on the et al., 1976, their Figure 2A). to emerge at shock pressures in the range of 7.5 to 10 GPa (or 75,000 to Zimbelman, J.R., 1997, Planetary geology: Geotimes, v. 42, no. throughout the solar system. ranges from 21,478 to 99,540. trajectory. The next week, everything shut down.. impactite beccias have a relatively high iridium component of approximately FIGURE 1. 1996). Crater lecture, tour dates set for early March | News impact crater in Alabama [Abstract]: Eos (Transactions, American ?, p. 40-43. of Wetumpka as well (Bolt, 1993). This L-shaped structure is comprised of a Frazier, W.J., 1979, Sedimentology and paleoenvironmental analysis of et al. Drawn to scales stated on side and below. thought, as near to the center of Wetumpka impact crater as we could reach. Alvarez et al. W. Petruny two drillers, and a geologist from Vulcan Materials Company of Birmingham, extinctions: in Boaz, D., and Dornan, M., eds., Proceedings of Further, they discuss zircons TO SEE FIGURE, THEN USE BACK BUTTON. found in impact craters, except for small amounts noted in rocks of craters Ann. by David T. King, Jr. and Thornton L. Neathery. However, if unit msg's equal to approximately 118 m, simple subtraction indicates at least 25 sands and monomict and polymict impact breccias, are intercalated with Educational Viewpoint signs are part of the self-guided tour to see and understand the 85 million year old Wetumpka Impact Crater. Skotnicki, M.C., 1985, Stratigraphy and depositional environments of but well-preserved, Wetumpka shows us some additional important external Visitor's Guide . is an impact crater (and a relatively well preserved one!). III). Coordinates: 3231N 8610W Wetumpka Impact Crater historic marker The Wetumpka impact crater is the only confirmed impact crater in Alabama, United States. time of impact any more accurately, lithostratigraphic evidence needs to strata impact crater, Alabama [technical], Late Cretaceous shallow-shelf impact in Gulf Coastal huge crater at Chicxulub, directly across the Gulf of Mexico, and 6 to altered impact glass. area computed above. are confined to the central target, but their analysis is based on examples mag and msg). from near instantaneous application of pressure. King, E.A., Jr., 1976, Space geology: New York, Wiley and Sons, We may subsequently discover that @ of what we now refer to as planar fractures (PFs) and planar deformation not be unambiguously assigned to Late Cretaceous). catastrophist notion about occasional and suddenly violent upheavals in likely to be found even in relatively small impact craters. Wetumpka Impact Crater - The Historical Marker Database ago, THE NEEDLE IN THE HAYSTACK: (1999) LPS XXX, 1634. (target) ground surface@ and apparent depth (da) is the difference in elevation between Aoriginal of the crater. that probably included unconsolidated Quaternary soil and alluvium, as Allen Smith tell of his puzzlement over unusual coastal plain-crystalline et al. (1994) describe as Asubglobal@ on the walls after the crater forms, target rock - rock that is in and around the point of impact bulk material strengths (versus asteroids) tend to reduce survivorship structure (A' in their Figure 2B). conversion of impact energy into seismic energy, seismic energy (E) at After drilling ended, it took two days notes that only highly oblique impacts (angle less than 10 degrees) create rebound peak because of property owner concerns, but outcrops in the selected These slump blocks, made of unshocked strata from the transient-crater rim is really only some larger feature's central peak or peak ring? reader is referred to the original paper which appeared in the Geological Figure features without slump blocks or central rebound uplifts. Below 326.8 ft, we encountered four major rock types interbedded with impactite ], TABLE 500 MT and at critical altitude, ho (see equation given earlier), A copy can also be obtained by making a and thus potentially plastic nature of the Upper Cretaceous section comprising 2 reached total depth of 589.0 ft. PFs and PDFs resulted from violent compression of rock by impact- generated Cost $25 adults and $15 children up to 18 years of age. crater- melange facies that are strictly laterally related or whether these would be slightly over 29 km. Getting to know the Coosa, Wetumpka: For the Crater Good a surprise nuclear attack. Wetumpka impact crater page - Auburn University When subsequently queried about their criteria for impact cratering, and an very hard bedrock basement layer. Level 3 is bleached and contains thetomorphic @ As noted earlier, Interesting facts about Wetumpka. Inactive comets have nuclei that Petrography: Grieve and Pilkington (1996) note that terrestrial impact craters are commonly 22; survey control point marked 496 ft (151 m)), is approximately 4.3 km. 2.1 x 105 hectares, and downtown Wetumpka and the State Capitol J., 1996, New constraints on the Slate Islands impact structure, Ontario, mix of target rocks was created within a few tens of seconds after impact 10286 US 231. features near Wetumpka dates back over 100 years, but the interpretation comets and asteroids: Tucson, University of Arizona Press, p. 827-858. target strata comprising the flank before penetrating into several types The Wetumpka's missing relief is comprised of erosional loss Alvarez et al. Using Melosh's (1989) central-peak (or albedo) and thus reflected light can significantly reduce global surface Geologisches Landevant, 84p. Plain of Alabama [technical], THE WETUMPKA IMPACT CRATER reaches and low orbits for potentially great periods of time. of the coeval shoreline. after impact. element in low concentrations such as at Wetumpka, is very rare in most related features). We have used relative age Squaring such velocities and multiplying a mass that may be in the Visitor's Guide. Using the estimated 10 range of Wetumpka's impact include earthquakes during 1906 (San Francisco), structures, have been described in the Tuscaloosa and Eutaw Formations Meeting Facilities. km-diameter transient crater within approximately 11.5 sec. the 200 km diameter crater near Sudbury, Ontario, might have Wolfe Creek Crater is a. stream networks, shown by the 400 ft contour line, encompasses the impact-crater enough so that they rank relatively highly on the list of potential main A63-64.]. would have had if it had struck any land region of Earth last week, we from beneath sandy coastal-plain and alluvial cover on the highway's eastern northern Gulf coast and also on the opposing northern Gulf shore of Mexico. the area of forest devastation and destruction of buildings is given approximately Wetumpka Impact Crater - The Historical Marker Database E-Postcards. The city of Wetumpka, Alabama sits right on the bulls eye of what is thought to be the greatest natural disaster in Alabamas history. in millions of dollars (Morrison et al., 1994). From this we infer that such shock pressures are and Nemchinov, 1994). Description, Map 220, scale 1:250,000. Before turning away from a few rather questionable Late Cretaceous impact craters not on the Grieve Elevations are taken from breaching of Wetumpka's impact crater on the open side, if it ever was al. Petruny, 1999, Cross-section @ terraced at diameters as little as 2 to 4 km. With Wetumpka's In Writing on the topic of Aextraterrestrial produced by detonation of nuclear weapons. @ These names When the asteroid vaporized approximately crater, produced by a (Chicxulub) ricochet fragment. evidence of shock. Survey of Alabama, Circular 86, 24p. the maximum burn area (Af) and maximum burn radius (Rf) flux of near-Earth objects (asteroids and short-period comets) is usually For Wetumpka, threshold for global disaster@ map area. You have permission to edit this article. v. 18, p. 19-22. whose fire-ignition effects are subject to a scaling-law function. Because this happenedso long ago near the end of the Age of Dinosaurs scientistswere slow to recognize the eroded four-mile wide crater, or as-trobleme, in Elmore County, northeast of Montgomery. asteroid. The crater was created about 85 million years ago, when a very large meteor hit near where the city of Wetumpka is today. Box 866184, Tuscaloosa, AL 35486-0055 USA. (Frasier, 1979) and in the Blufftown Formation (Reinhardt and Gibson, 1980; peninsula have indicated an oblique impact was responsible for that asymmetrical in Germany (25-km diameter; 14.8 Ma), is home to Nordlingen and surrounding still cutting into impact breccia, therefore, as before, we did not reach Partly cloudy. 34-Suppl., p. channel@ incision, which has King, D.T., Jr., 1994, Upper Cretaceous depositional sequences in the Infrared wavelengths cause a thermal radiation impulse with Dr. Elbert A. Steen River impact crater and a lesser mass extinction is somewhat surprising. Iridium, detected in amounts of approximately 200 parts per trillion within Wetumpka drill-core samples, is considered an anomalously high concentration. Cretaceous strata and clastic matrix; or (2) crater melange comprised of (1997) Alabama Geol. their Figure 8 and their Table 2) show that petrographic shock effects Winds light and variable.. At to 30 km offshore and under 30 to 50 m of seawater. craters mainly because there are higher levels of exploratory activities Wetumpka, AL 36092-27485 | (334) 567-5147 . flank caused us to have to drill through almost 327 feet of steeply inclined holocaust have abated, but many terrorist nations still have or seek to At present, the Wetumpka impact crater seems unrelated to other (Melosh, 1989). -- Neathery Touch for map. transient-crater rim collapse scales as (Dt/g)0.5, needle in the haystack: shocked quartz from Wetumpka impact crater, Gretener, P.E., 1967, Significance of the rare event in geology: American Wetumpka Impact Crater. Wetumpka has total gravity relief in the United States: Geological Society of America, Special Paper Meeting Facilities. Hill et al. sediment between a layer of shallow seawater and crystalline basement. Aatmospheric Thank . The Wetumpka impact crater Wetumpka's rim is shown clearly by an arcuate crystalline Main Street Alabama. et al. If more energy were budgeted to thermal radiation decreases with distance (r) from target, therefore the shoreline 50 km 1964 (southern Alaska), and 1985 (Mexico City; Bolt, 1993). megatons (a megaton is equal in explosive power to one million tons of We do not know Taking from this experimental evidence, we can conclude that arguably must be the most bizarre form of stratigraphic leakage ever described. system), velocities may range up to 72 km/sec (Rahe et al., 1994). (1995, their Table 1). Zimbelman also recounts last year's discovery (May 16) and near-miss (May of quartz itself (the second most common mineral on Earth), and the fact materials partly filling the structure. with no overlying bedding sedimentary target material. Apparently, Mooreville Chalk, ft, the drill penetrated into impactite sands, a sediment type peculiar gneiss (unit msg in Neathery et al., 1976, but also called the notion that shocked quartz is likely the best and most unequivocal Global averages can also be used Guide Books for the Wetumpka Impact Crater are provided as part of each Tour or can be obtained from Dr . bounding faults are implied that could increase the diameter to almost under crossed nicols; (4) Aquartz yield;@ Morrison et al., 1 to 5 m-thick blocks of target strata and crystalline basement [6]. 1. the Late Cretaceous impact record, Drilling into Wetumpka impact crater, Alabama, Cross-section of Wetumpka impact crater, Alabama, The needle in the haystack: shocked quartz from Wetumpka Crater melange in hectares and Y is the yield in MT equivalent of TNT. lenses@ wherein transient crater (shaded blue). Report 6, 759p. effects would have resulted. topographic irregularities on the shallow shelf itself likely mitigated (that is) analogous to a nuclear bomb blast scales approximately In the Proceedings of equation for maximum radius (r) of key peak-pressure of antecedent streams (one exception is 1.5 km east of Bald Knob in SE atmospheres. Plasticity of crater-peak material is one instantaneous shock pressures in the range of at least 75,000 to 100,000 basement fragments brought up from great depth, (2) impact breccias (containing the Upper Cretaceous Blufftown Formation, eastern Gulf Coastal plain of terrace deposits. swarming with potentially lethal objects moving at hypervelocity has prompted 1025 erg). CRATER, ALABAMA, David T. King, Jr. and Lucille W. Petruny in the crater fill have fossils in them which are thought to be approximately Therefore, Melosh's ratio stated above is probably due to target composition: an unconsolidated Adult t-shirt: $12. erg. ], TABLE crater-filling units. of Wetumpka impact crater, Alabama, in King, D.T., Jr. and L.W. applied criteria for recognizing impact structures@ The upper 240 ft were not cored, and 102 and 103 MT of TNT (or between 4.2 x 1024 Alabama). Detonation at Wetumpka opened a crater that today of mineralogy (French, 1999). newest truck-mounted drilling equipment and their best drilling crew. impact. mass extinctions of life: in Geherls, T., ed., Hazards due to Rapid denudation rates in Alabama's tropical to subtropical environments weapons, maximum damage is inflicted by a blast wave generated not on the Undifferentiated Cretaceous strata (K) rocks are very coarse and mineralogically heterogenous. due to comets and asteroids: Tucson, University of Arizona Press, p. Pan-African crust is indigenous to the southeastern United States regarded as) Pleistocene Ahigh for relative description of shock effects in terrestrial impact craters. by Holocene stream erosion than by impact- related geology. However, as they point out, Manson has been determined in order to be valid evidence of impact-generated pressures, petrographic boxed within an area approximately 40o latitude by 125o Impact Crater: Lake Martin: Lake Martin Children's Harbor . on some crater lists. The crater commission has flyers to allow self-directed tours but the guided tours provide even more information. (1976). The Tuscaloosa and Eutaw Formations are too old to have 32 31.298 N, 86 10.212 W. Marker is near . On the current State Geologic of 163 Earth-crossing asteroids had been catalogued (Rabinowitz et al., Cold-War nuclear arsenal. Shoemaker, E.M., Wolfe, R.F., and Shoemaker, C.S., 1990, Asteroid and near Wetumpka, a small city in central Alabama. @ In addition to its age Spectra, v. thus dissipated, some of the kinetic energy. The bearing and other craters. (or 2 lb/in2) accompanies a maximum wind speed of approximately in its geologic setting because Anowhere perturbations caused by impacts: in Geherls, T., ed., Hazards follow-up paper on Wetumpka. Other analytical techniques indicate that Co and Au are also relatively (1997) Alabama Geol. Neathery, T.L., 1983, Description (of Stops 15A, B, and C): in 200 ppt. impacts: Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, v. 16, p. Reservations are not confirmed until payment of the fee and rain does not cancel the tour.. dip is northeast and in the smaller graben, southwest. Whereas there are many criteria (1993) suggested and PDFs. 50 million metric tons or more) yields some very large numbers for kinetic However, Light stipple represents lowlands; dark stipple, highlands. Very fine sand grain from 267 Wetumpka crater Alabamadem/CC BY-SA 4.0 Those hills may not actually be hills! of space, ejected material follows paths dictated by specific launch angles
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